Iconography of Constantine the Great and Saint Helen in Opolski Silesia

 

I.

Silesia is a wide-spread historical land, at present located in Poland and in the Czech Republic in the basin of the upper and middle Odra river and at the beginning of Vistula river. The name of this land (Czech Slezsko, German Schlesien, Polish Śląsk, Latin Silesia) comes from the Slav tribe Ślęzanie ¹, living around the mountain Ślęza, their main sanctuary and river Ślęza, flowing into Odra river near Wrocław.

           In the prehistorical times, the Silesian lands fell into the area of the Celtic expansion. Then the affluence of the East-German tribes began. Before the start of the migration of nations, it was a seat of the Vandal and Siling tribes. Two tracks crossed the Silesia of so-called amber route of which one led through the Moravian Gate in the direction of Wrocław, Calisia and through the valley of lower Vistula towards the coast of Baltic Sea, the other one aiming at the same point, ran through the Czech country, Kłodzka Valley and Wrocław, where it joined the first track.[1]

           In the 5^th and 6^th Centuries, Silesia was inhabited by the Slav tribes Dziadoszanie, Bobrzanie, Ślęzanie, Trzebowianie, Opolanie and Gołęszyce. In the 9^th Century, those tribes fell in the area of the Great Moravian State. Around 990, Silesia was incorporated into the Polish state, however at each weakening of the power in Poland, it came back to the Czech State.[2]

           In 1000, a bishopric was set up in Wrocław, which embraced all the area of Silesia.

The dukes, reigning in Silesia, supported the development of trade and industry, especially metal mining. In 13^th and 14^th Centuries, numerous German settlers came to those lands (mainly from Franconia and Thuringia), Valon settlers and the Jews. The towns became German-speaking. However it was in Silesia where the oldest sentence in the Polish language was written in so-called “Księga henrykowska” (The Henry’s Book), spoken by a Czech settler to his wife: Day ut ia pobrusa a ti pozivai (Let me work, and you rest).

In the times of division into provinces, Silesia was the most divided province of the Polish Crown. The Silesian Piasts several times tried to take over the highest power in Poland and unite the country.

On 7^th April 1348, the chancellery of the Czech king, Charles IV issued an official act of incorporating Silesia into the Czech State. On 22^nd November of the same year, the Polish king Casimirus III the Great concluded peace with in Namysłów, by virtue of which, both parties mutually and solemnly declared “perpetual love and mutual friendship”[3]. That meant real resignation of the right to Silesia for the Czech State. In 1372, the new Polish king, Louis I Andegavenian renounced finally of this province for Luxemburg dynasty.[4].

In 15^th Century, the Silesian lands heavily suffered during the Hussite raids. In 1526, after the death of Louis the Jagiellonian, Silesia, together with all the Czech Kingdom fell into the reign of Habsburg dynasty, within which, it was one of the most precious and the best developed land.

At the beginning of 16^th Century, the history of the Silesian Reformation began. Soon, numerous confession disputes appeared between the Catholic Habsburgs, and the population of the province, inclining to religious novelties.

Silesia very heavily suffered during the 30-year was. As a result of the battles between the Emperor’s, Protestant and Swedish detachments, it lost about 1/3 of population, 36 towns were destroyed and almost 1100 villages, and also 113 castles and fortresses.

In 1741, as a result of so-called Silesian Wars, the bigger part of the province together with Kłodzka land was incorporated into the Prussian State, then into the German Empire.

The first railway line in Silesia connected in 1842 Wrocław with nearby Oława. In the Upper Silesia, the coal mining developed as well as metallurgical industry.

Within the Prussian monarchy, Silesia was divided into 3 notariates: Legnickie, Wrocławskie and Opolskie. In the last one, the Polish speaking population prevailed.

After the end of the First World War, in the Upper Silesia, three uprisings broke out (1919-1920-1921) and a plebiscite under the supervision of the international forces was carried out. As a result of those events, a part of this territory was incorporated into the restored Polish State.

Due to the German invasion over Poland in September 1939, all Silesia found itself under the reign of the Nazi Germany. Two provinces then were set up: Oberschlesien (Katowickie and Opolskie notariates) and Niederschlesien (Legnickie and Wrocławskie notariates).

After the end of the Second World War, as compensation for the lost Eastern lands, all Silesia by virtue of the decision of the Great Trio was passed to Poland. The German population, remaining on this territory, was compulsorily displaced, and was replaced by exiles from the former Eastern lands of the Republic of Poland and the settlers from the Central Poland. Only in Opolszczyzna, a part of the indigenous population remained.

At present, the Silesian region, belonging to the Republic of Poland is divided into 3 provinces: Lower Silesia, Opolskie and Silesia. The Opolski Silesia is a region, where the native population (Poles and Germans) and population, which came here after the last war peaceably live side by side. The aboriginal Silesians constitute about 30% of Opolszczyzna inhabitants[5].     

 

 

II.

Silesia never was under the Roman dominance, however, in the period from 1^st Century B.C. up to 5^th Century A.D. numerous products of the Latin culture were reaching here with wide stream. E. Konik states, that archaeological source material, impressive in quantity and quality, and also very modest written source material indicate, that in the period from 1^st Century B.C. to 5^th Century A.D. , the present Silesian lands were under a strong economic influence, and what is related to it, also political influence of the Roman Empire, reflecting respectively its development until it reached its culminating point at the end of 2^nd Century A.D. and then its fall at the end of 5^th Century A.D.”[6]. It was so-called period of the Roman influence[7].

The ancient Romans exactly realised of the existence of numerous tribes beyond the northern frontiers of the Empire. After conquer of Gaul by Julius Caesar, the Roman army intensively penetrated the lands, laid in the basin of Rhine. On the map, coming from the times of Marcus Agrippa, situated on the Mars Field in Rome, the countries beyond Danube river are shown, conventionally divided into Germany and Dacia, separated one from another by Vistula river[8]. The cartographic works of Claudius Ptolomeo introduces Vistula as border between the territories of the Germans and Sarmats. In 1^st Century A.D., the writer and scholar, Gaius Plinius the Elder, in his works “The natural history”described the expedition, made in the times of the Emperor Neron, of the Roman equite for the Baltic amber, which was to serve to honour the ancient games in the capitol of the Empire. In the winter of 179/180 A.D., a squad, consisting of 855 soldiers under the command of Valerius Maximin stayed in the camp Laugaricio, on the territory of the present Slovak Trencin[9]. To commemorate their stay, the legionaries engraved in the rock an inscription, which discovered after centuries, at present, is one of the main tourist attractions of the Trencin Old Town. 

Despite the fact, that the borders of the Roman Empire (Romanum limes) along Danube and Rhein were to prevent from the affluence of the barbarian tribes from the North, however they constituted no obstacle in the mutual getting to know each other. On the contrary, the numerous military camps (castra), around which gathered also the buyers and craftsmen, were a perfect base for the development of the mutual economic, political and cultural contacts. In the first four centuries A.D. “the waves of Danube played a role of either a connector, or substantial obstacle[10], depending on the actual political situation..  

The interference of the Romans in life of Barbaricum assumed various forms. Disputes were provoked between neighbouring tribes, sometimes, sons of the tribe leaders were taken prisoners ( or as hostages), who while staying in the Roman environment, learned its language and customs to become afterwards the “ambassadors” of the Roman world among their people[11]. All the time, a peaceful penetration of the cross border territories was carried out, producing flow of goods and ideas. This influence was in principle one directional, however as time passed, the cultural influence became more and more bilateral. In the times of “migration of nations”, Rome, Romanizing other peoples, alone was subject to de-Romanizing[12].

Rome’s interest in the territories on the northern side of the Carpathian Mountains increased evidently after the conquer of Gaul, made by Gaius in 49 B.C. Then the earlier Gallic penetration of the territory of the Central Europe was replaced by the Roman activity[13].

The culture of the ancient Rome penetrated the territory of present Opolski Silesia, most of all through the amber route, connecting the coasts of Adriatic Sea with the Baltic Sea. The starting point was Aquilea, the buyer’s track was modified, depending on the geopolitical conditions. It ran through Alpine passes and valleys, the Czech Valley, the Central Silesia, and Calisia up to the mouth of Vistula river. On the Wrocław suburb Partynice, a big amber treasure was discovered - about 2 750 kg, dated for Ist century B.C. Together with the fall of the State Maroboda and connection of Aquilea by a highway with Carnuntum (a Roman camp, placed on Danube river, 34 km from Vienna), the amber route was modified. From Carnuntum, most probably, it ran through the Moravian Gate and Głubczyce Heights around Krapkowice. and then by traditional route. It should be added, that there were numerous branch-lines of the amber route.

Among objects, coming from the barbarian countries, one should list, most of all, amber, furs and forest products. The Romans paid for them with goods from gold, silver and bronze, glass and ceramic vessels and coins.    

   

III.

In the cultural identity of the Opolski Silesia, unifying in itself a part of lands, formerly belonging to the Lower Silesia (Brzeg, Nysa and Namysłów lands) with agricultural lands of the western Upper Silesia, apart from dominating today the Polish, German and Moravian elements, we notice also quite rich heritage of the Roman ancient times[14]. A part of the extremely precious spiritual legacy are undoubtfully the representations of Constantine the Great and his mother Saint Helen, located in the churches of Opolszczyzna and on the territory of the sanctuary on Saint Ann’s Mountain.  

In the church under the invocation of Saint Peter and Saint Paul in Nowa Cerekiew[15], there are sculptures of Constantine the Great and Saint Helen located, coming from the workshop of Michał Ignacy Klahr, dated at the end of XVIIIthe century.

The Emperor Constantine is presented in the standing the strong posture of arched outline, it holds attributes in its hand. The figure of the Emperor is dressed in reach green doublet with gilded elements, it has scarlet coat on the arms with ermine collar, buckled on the chest by dashing button. This coat covers hands, wraps around hips, and in waist is tied by gold, twisted fringed fabric. The figure wears high brown shoes. The body is twisted, inclined outside the altar, on which the sculpture stands. Slightly lifted right hand supports silver flag, which flag-staff is ended with metal ball. The left hand, extended aside, rests on dashing silver shield with monogram IHS. The head is turned to the left, covered with silver coronet. Full face, of tiny features with beard. The volume of the sculpture is thickset; the figure is low of slightly heavy proportion, however featured by high expression of posture and gesture. The sculptural workmanship of the detail is rather general, synthetic. The body of the sculpture is strongly divided by large planes of drapery, numerous ornamental openings, deep plastic bores, which penetrated by space. This representation is featured by monumentalism, solemnity of gesture, seriousness of expression.[16].

The sculpture, presenting Saint Helen, comes also from the end of 18^th Century and from the same workshop. The full figure stands in the strong contrapposto, dressed in vast garments – a green bottom dress with gilded trimming on the edges, there is a scarlet coat on it with ermine collar, freely draped, of large planes, rising as under the blow of wind. Saint Helen has gold coronet on its head, under which there is a celadon turban, falling on arms. The right hand of the Saint rests on an edge of a book, supported on the hip; the left hand is raised in a pathetic gesture. Half coat falls in circles from the arm, in the hand, end of the shawl, wrapped around the neck and tied on the breast (formerly it is likely that this hand held cross, but at present it is lost). The head is slightly inclined to the left, face lifted – of not a young woman, slightly pudding face, parted lips, look directed upwards. The figure is thickset, low, as rough-hewn, dynamic posture, strongly underlined gesture. The body of the sculpture is divided by waiving drapery patches, which, adopting in some places horizontal position, separated from the volume of the figure, enters in active relations with the surrounding space. All sculpture is featured by monumentalism and seriousness of expression[17].

The sculptures of Constantine and Saint Helen are located in the side altar of the church in Nowa Cerekiew. They are made of polychrome, gilded wood and are about 1,5 metre high.

It should be added, that only in Nowa Cerekiew, starting from the 18^th Century, Roman coins were found, mostly during the field and building works. There were so many, that in the thirties of the 19^th Century, the Jewish buyers regularly came to the town of bazaars, buying coins, which then they sold to the goldsmiths in Racibórz and Opava. The coins came from the times of Domician, Traian, Valens[18].

The coins from the Roman times were also found, among others, in Brzeźce near Koźle, Charbielin and Niwnica near Nysa[19].

Did the old Roman findings inspire the worshippers from Nowa Cerekiew to found the sculptures of Constantine and Saint Helen for their parish church? Constantine the Great is not a saint of the Catholic Church, thus he does not take the public worship – he is introduced mostly “in companion” of his mother, Saint Helen, the finder of the relics of the Holy Cross.

Priest Leo Machinek, the parish priest in Nowa Cerekiew in the years 1934-1946 in his recollective works Heimat, unvergessene Heimat states, that the above described sculptures of Constantine and Saint Helen represent the Czech saints: Saint Vaclav and his mother, Saint Ludmila[20]. That wrong opinion lasts up to now and is spread unknowingly by the priests from Nowa Cerekiew. It seems that it came from the fact, that in this town, some time ago, there was a church under the invocation of Saint Vaclav[21]. When it stopped to exist, the local population started to worship spontaneously the figure of Constantine the Great, who is represented by the sculptors in the similar way as Saint Vaclav[22]. 

The appearance of the sign of the Holy Cross to the Emperor Constantine the Great before the victory over Maksencius and the story about finding the Cross Tree by his mother during the pilgrimage to the Holy Land contributed to the development of the worship of the Christ Cross in all Christian world. Here is also the source of the worship of Saint Helen[23]. 

The invocation of the Holy Cross and related invocations – the Rise and Finding of the Cross spread over Europe under the influence of the medieval pilgrimages to the Holy Land and crusades. The churches under such invocations not only once had relics of the Cross Tree, brought by the pilgrims or crusaders[24]. Those invocations on the Polish lands, belong to often appearing – around 1772, 158 parish churches had them, and in the Polish dioceses in 1996, the number of the passion titles increased to 309, including 241 titles of the Rise of Holy Cross, 52 of the Holy Cross and 16 of the Finding of Holy Cross[25]. In the same time, on the territory of the Opolski diocese, 15 parish churches were noted under the invocation of the Rise of Holy Cross and 1 with the title of the Holy Cross in total of 391 parish churches. All those temples by their metrics reach the Middle Ages[26].

The oldest relic of the Holy Cross in the Upper Silesia is kept in the Opole Cathedral under invocation of the Rise of Holy Cross[27]. According to old stories, it was transferred to the church in Opole in 1024 by the wroclawski’s bishop, who had received it as a gift from Saint Emerik (+1031)- son of Stefan, the Hungarian king[28]. 

In the last decade of the 19^th Century, preparations were started in Opole for ceremonial celebration of the 600-year anniversary of the parish under invocation of the Holy Cross. Within the framework of those activities, the inside of the temple was enriched by new altars. On one of them, a picture of Saint Helen was placed[29].

When, in November 1962, the Opolski’s bishop F. Jop nominated A.Jokiel as a parish pries of this parish, the latter started thorough renovation of the church inside in Gothic style. During those works, all plasters were tried to be removed, to show the beauty of the Gothic walls of this temple. However, in some places, this had to be abandoned, because brick was extensively corroded. So new plasters were put, on which an artist from Krakow S. Szmuc placed the religious scenes, made in sgraffito technique. On the northern wall of the church, a scene is introduced of finding the Holy Cross by Empress Helen. Three crosses included in the Calvary scene show problems related to the establishment of the authentity of the Relic. On the second band of the sgraffito, a touch of the sick with the Cross is presented, who was immediately healed[30].

On the left side, from the main entrance to the Opolski Cathedral, there is a big size sculpture located, showing Saint Helen with an attribute of the Holy Cross in hand. 

Around the diocese sanctuary of Opolski Silesia on the Saint Ann Mountain, on the mountain slope, in a beautiful vicinity of old trees, there is a complex of chapels located, consisting in the Passion of Christ and Alley of Holy Mother. This complex was made under the inspiration of the Patron of Saint Ann Mountain’s sanctuary Jerzy Adam Franciszek Gaszyński in the years 1700 – 1709 according to the design of the Italian architect Domenico Signo. 3 big chapels were built then and 30 smaller ones, taking as a pattern, created a hundred years earlier, the famous establishment in Zebrzydowice Calvary[31]. One of the smaller chapels is consecrated to Saint Helen as 28^th station of the Passion of Christ[32].

Since 1764, on Saint Ann Mountain, because of the holiday of the Rise of Holy Cross, ceremonially a great wake is celebrated together with Calvary services. At present, those celebrations are performed every year on 14^th September[33].

Every year, on 3^rd of May, a holiday of the Finding of Holy Cross was celebrated, connected with a pilgrimage of Calvary guides, however, in the recent years, it was deleted from the calendar of Saint Ann Mountain’s wakes because of smaller and smaller number of participants, and also because the day of the Finding of Holy Cross is not included in the post-council liturgical calendar anymore[34].

The beautiful sculpture, representing Constantine the Great is in the parish church under invocation of Saint Bartholomew in Głogówek, a small but very picturesque town, located 42 km south from Opole[35].